Daisy Cattle

Transcription is the formation of an RNA strand from a DNA template within the nucleus of a cell. There are four nucleotides of DNA. These are adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine. These nucleotides are transcribed to form messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) consisting of nucleotides made of adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil. This transcription from DNA to mRNA happens by an RNA polymerase II. This newly created mRNA is read in the 5' to 3' direction in sets of 3. These sets are called codons. Each mRNA also has a cap and end. On the 5 prime side is a methylated guanine triphosphate and on the 3 prime is a poly A tail. Messenger RNA then moves to the cells cytoplasm and through the cells ribosomes for translation. Messenger RNA is matched to molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) in the ribosomes to create amino acids. These amino acids subsequently form an amino acid chain. (Osuri, 2003) A visual representation of this can been viewed in figure 3.

We can modified certain genes by using a genetic engineering method 'exon skipping'. This is where a desired gene is inserted into the organism's DNA to skip over specific sectors which are ignored during protein production. A special strand of DNA 'antisense oligonucleotide' is the mechanism which allows some sectors of the protein producing DNA to be ignored by binding to messenger RNA which alter the way some proteins are produced. The production of different proteins in a particular GMO can solve many allergy problems. An allergic reaction is when lymphocytes overreact when recognising an allergen, such as the proteins in egg, where it rapidly produces antibodies. When too many antibodies are produced, enzymes are created to fight the infection. This begins to cause many symptoms such as minor itchiness and runny noses to more serious cases of vomiting or the worst case, anaphylactic shock. When genetic engineering can alter the genes that produce a certain allergen, people who are allergic to egg could eat it if that particular allergen is replaced, meaning they can eat egg without a problem. Genetic engineering allows people with allergies to eat foods that they are normally allergic to because the newly produced proteins do not trigger the lymphocytes to

This method was used to extract the whey protein BLG from the cells that would be used to make Daisy. There is a specific gene in the chromosome that is responsible for making the BLG protein and producing this in the milk. By using gene knockdown the scientists were able to target the specific gene that is responsible for it and to lower the amounts of BLG that is produced to a considerably lower amount. Meaning our human infants will not be affected by the amounts present.

Genes is the physical and functional unit of heredity which are made up of DNA. It carries the information of that determines traits that are passed on by the parents. There are two copies of genes which comes from each parents which is to be exact twenty chromosome from each parent to make up forty six chromosome in a baby. As by the

The DNA’s function is to keeper of all the genetic information or codes of the organism.The DNA does not do everything by itself it has help from the mRNA the messenger to send and translate the code. In order to make proteins the DNA has to send the code to the mRNA then they can translate it into amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. These building blocks or amino acids is how proteins

Though conceptually straightforward, the process of gene therapy involves biochemical problems of gene delivery, gene control and duration of gene action, each of which is a technical challenge.

Gene knockout is when a target gene is altered completely to be nonfunctional. When the gene is altered, the proteins that are made from this gene will no longer function which can further effect metabolic processes, this is why gene knockdown is much preferred over gene knockout. Gene knockout effects on other metabolic processes and can have damaging effects on the individual involved.

A protein is present and can be translated back into a DNA sequence. This DNA sequence is then used to make a mutant gene. This mutant gene then makes a mutant phenotype. When the DNA sequence is formed it can be disrupted or changed by gene silencing, deletions and point mutations. Genes can be edited by being knocked out or knocked down. Two ways this can be done is by the use of RNA interference or morpholino for a specific gene, which are examples of gene silencing. This can inhibit the genes function and from there it could create mutated alleles, which could cause a loss of function phenotype. TILLING is also another way to mutate a specific gene using a lot of point mutations and chemical mutagenesis. This is done without injecting any foreign DNA into the genome and it produces differences in phenotypes to be looked

Two to three percent of infants, within the first year of life, are allergic to cow’s milk. Although most differences between cow and human milk don’t cause many problems for people, the Beta Lactoglobulin protein is a major cause of allergic reactions. The Beta Lactoglobulin (BLG) allergen is a whey protein present in milk. In order to decrease the concentration of the BLG protein, researchers found that producing an individual with a non-functional version of the gene would silence the effects of the protein. Scientists in New Zealand created a genetically modified cow where they have reduced BLG gene activity and therefore the BLG content in the cow’s milk. Daisy the cow has been created to produce milk that contains undetectable amounts

Gene editing is the process of modifying genes with a particular goal. One goal could be for an individual to have particular traits. Another goal could be the elimination of a debilitating or fatal disease. There is a lot of controversy surrounding gene editing today as people do not want it to be used for personal preferences. However, gene editing can be used for many positive things, such as eliminating birth defects or fighting diseases (Harmon, 2017).

Scientists can now genetically modify cow genes to prevent them from producing specific genes that code for the production of BLG. RNA interference was used for this process, which is also known as RNAi. It is where RNA molecules inhibit certain gene expressions, stopping them from functioning by destroying mRNA molecules.

Gene knockdown refers to experimental techniques by which the expression of one or more of an organism’s genes are reduced. This reduction of genes can occur either through genetic modification (alters the genetic makeup of an organism using

Gene therapy is currently used to correct genetic diseases.  These diseases are caused either by inherited defective genes or by miscoded genes, which are generally created during cell growth and division (Blaese).  Gene therapy works by

Transcription is where DNA is transcribed into RNA which then can be pass to the ribosome’s to act as a template for protein synthesis. Before transcription can begin DNA must unwind and the two halves of the molecule much come apart so exposing the base sequence. This process begins when a region of a two DNA strands is unzipped by enzyme called RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA molecule at the imitation site.

The formation of a protein begins in the genes, which contain the basic building information for all parts of living organisms. There are four DNA nucleotides that make up genes: A, T, C, and G. A codon is any arrangement of three of these nucleotides. Each triplet of nucleotides codes for one amino acid. First transcription will begin in the nucleus where mRNA will transcribe the DNA template. During both transcription and translation, there are three steps. The first step in transcription is initiation where RNA polymerase separates a DNA strand and binds RNA nucleotides to the DNA. RNA nucleotides are the same as DNA ones except that U replaces the T. The second is just the elongation of the mRNA. The third step of transcription is termination. This occurs when RNA polymerase reads a codon region and the mRNA separates from the