Consequences And Development Of The DNA And The Polymerase Of DNA

Transcription is the formation of an RNA strand from a DNA template within the nucleus of a cell. There are four nucleotides of DNA. These are adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine. These nucleotides are transcribed to form messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) consisting of nucleotides made of adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil. This transcription from DNA to mRNA happens by an RNA polymerase II. This newly created mRNA is read in the 5' to 3' direction in sets of 3. These sets are called codons. Each mRNA also has a cap and end. On the 5 prime side is a methylated guanine triphosphate and on the 3 prime is a poly A tail. Messenger RNA then moves to the cells cytoplasm and through the cells ribosomes for translation. Messenger RNA is matched to molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) in the ribosomes to create amino acids. These amino acids subsequently form an amino acid chain. (Osuri, 2003) A visual representation of this can been viewed in figure 3.

The structure of DNA is compared to that of a spiral ladder. A complementary base pair, held together by a hydrogen bond, creates the “rungs” of the ladder. The sugar and phosphate together create the backbone, or the sides of the ladder. The carbon atoms of the free sugar are numbered 1-5, and the sugar contains two “ends” that contribute to the synthesizing of the backbone: the 3’ and 5’ ends which connect to the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide. And now since there are the ends, there will always be one 3’ end not attached to a phosphate group and a phosphate group not attached to a 3’ end at the end of the backbone. The sugar-phosphate backbones of the two strands of a double helix are antiparallel, meaning that they run in different directions.

Prior to the determination of the primary structure, the RNA strand undergoes splicing which alters the sequence. During splicing introns are removed and exons are randomly re-arranged in a random order. There is 2 problems with this model of attempting to estimate the protein a sequence will form from RNA. Firstly depending on the place of the body at which splicing is occurring, different introns will be removed and also secondly, we need to know which random order the exons will shuffle themselves into.

Bacteria belongs to a group of organism that lacks cell nucleus and membrane bound organells. This group of organisms are termed as prokaryotes. Prokaryotes follows the central dogma of molecular biology first proposed by Francis Crick in 1958 to synthesize proteins from mRNA through a process called translation and the mRNA is being synthesized from the DNA by another process called Transcription. Temperature, nutrient availibity are some key factors that start the process of synthesizing proteins in response to these key factors. Example. This paper will provide an explanation as to how bacteria decode the genetic information to produce

An example of this is a DNA construct with a primer located at -909 bp to -421 bp from the TSS. This specific region acts as an inhibitor, and we know this to be true because once it was removed, luciferase activity increased. These locations on the genomic DNA suggest possible sequences that, like mentioned before, are likely to be involved in regulating ITGB6 transcription. This leads to the next experiment used, which is called promoter deletion analysis. The authors assay the sequence deletions of the promoter in order to determine which one of those sequences within the 1,117 bp are the main elements that affect ITGB6 transcription. The results of deleting certain fragments of sequences showed that the region from -421 bp to -150 bp upstream of the TSS had the highest activity in the ITGB6 gene expression. When that region got deleted, gene expression levels dropped. Further deletion from -150 bp to -3 bp completely wiped it out. This decrease provides us some insight on the mechanism of ITGB6 transcription regulation, which ultimately answers the authors’ research

The sequences that should be mutated to make the pFLS2noWbox::GUS construct are the three W-box promoter motifs. The W-box promoter motifs are cis-regulatory elements found within the FLS2 promoter (pFlS2) that WRKY transcriptional factors recognize and bind to. These promoter motifs follow a specific consensus sequence, which defines a W-Box. The three sequences that should be mutated are: (+) TTGACC, (+) TTGACT and (-) AGTCAA. The addition of excessive mutations will guarantee that the promoter motifs will not be recognized by WRKY transcriptional factors. Therefore, by introducing 3 mutations into the middle of the three sequences, we can ensure that WRKY transcription factors will be unable to recognize and bind the three promoter motifs. Thus, the mutated sequences can be shown as: (+) TTAAAC, (+) TTAAAT, and (-) AATAAA.

The process in which DNA is copied into RNA is the process of Transcription. During this process the double stranded DNA is split and then extra nucleotides are used to construct a single stranded RNA sequence that is later used for building proteins. The enzyme known as RNA polymerase moves down the DNA strand and reads the strand to produce the RNA strand. As this process is taking place, the 3’ end of the RNA polymerase is checking the work of the 5’ side of the enzyme. When the RNA polymerase spots an error, the enzyme is placed into reverse and then corrects the mistake. The accuracy of this

In both eukaryote and prokaryote, transcription is the first step for a gene to be expressed and also highly regulated process by several distinct steps. Therefore, misregulation of transcription caused by mutations in transcriptional regulatory sequences or factors can lead to variety of diseases. In order to start transcription process, multi-subunit RNA polymerase (RNAP) from both bacterial and eukaryotic cells require various factors. Some of them are regulatory sequence-specific DNA binding proteins (activators or repressors) that can specifically recognize and bind to DNA at the promoter. These factors are recruited specifically in stepwise to help RNAP along

The discovery of DNA dated back to the 1800’s. On 1869 doctor Johann Friedrich Miescher discovered a new substance he believed resided in the cell nucleus much different from that of proteins. He was unaware of the importance of his discovery even after he died in 1895. Miescher is not credited for the discovery of DNA because of his personality of being way too much of a perfectionist, late to publish his discoveries, and his switch from one work to another.

There are 3 stages occur during interphase, which are G1 (gap one), S (synthesis) and G2 (gap two). In G1 stage (also known as Growth phase), the cell grows, made protein, enzymes, nutrients and organelles, which are needed for the DNA replication. In S stage, DNA replication happened following the process of semi-conservative replication. In this process, the DNA helicase unwinds the double helix structure (at replication fork). DNA polymerase is the enzyme that makes new strands of DNA. It adds nucleotides onto the new strand towards the 3’ end of the new strand. Leading strands (3’ to 5’ direction) and Lagging strands (5’ to 3’ direction) are replicated differently. DNA wraps around a special protein group call Histone. The chromosomes will have an X shape with a pair of chromatids attach to one centromere in each chromosome. The cell will continue to grow in G2 stage and will look for mistakes in the DNA and make sure that cells contain enough protein that needed before going to mitosis.

There are reasons to why a god or many gods are real or fake. But to my understanding or believe in an actually god. However, scientific discoveries within the last 30 years brought him to a conclusion some could not avoid. In a video interview in December 2004 a scientist stated, Super-intelligence is the only good explanation for the origin of life and the complexity of nature prominent in his conclusion were the discoveries of DNA. DNA in our cells is very similar to an intricate computer program. The sequencing and ordering of these ones and zeros is what makes the computer program work properly. In the same way, DNA is made up of four chemicals, abbreviated as letters A, T, G, and C. Much like the ones and zeros, these letters are arranged

Gene expression is the ability of a gene to produce a biologically active protein. This process is regulated by the cells of an organism, it is very important to the survival of organisms at all levels. This is much more complex in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes. A major difference is the presence in eukaryotes of a nuclear membrane, which prevents the simultaneous transcription and translation that occurs in prokaryotes. Initiation of protein transcription is started by RNA polymerase. The activity of RNA polymerase is regulated by interaction with regulatory proteins; these proteins can act both positively, as activators, and negatively as repressors. An example of gene regulation in cells is the activity of the trp operon. The trp

There is some suspect of RNAs’ ability to be folded into the right shapes during self-replication process, because they cannot replicate the shapes and thus will lose ability to catalyze. “There is no way to encode the bond type between nucleotides. In other words,

Formed in the nucleus by copying the gene from DNA in the process of transcription

The formation of a protein begins in the genes, which contain the basic building information for all parts of living organisms. There are four DNA nucleotides that make up genes: A, T, C, and G. A codon is any arrangement of three of these nucleotides. Each triplet of nucleotides codes for one amino acid. First transcription will begin in the nucleus where mRNA will transcribe the DNA template. During both transcription and translation, there are three steps. The first step in transcription is initiation where RNA polymerase separates a DNA strand and binds RNA nucleotides to the DNA. RNA nucleotides are the same as DNA ones except that U replaces the T. The second is just the elongation of the mRNA. The third step of transcription is termination. This occurs when RNA polymerase reads a codon region and the mRNA separates from the