DNA And DNA Analysis

Encoded DNA within the nucleus is transported to small molecules of nucleic acid named messenger RNA (mRNA)

Since DNA has the instructions for making protein we usually wonder how is it able to make ribosomes if DNA is stored within the nucleus. This is when a handy tool comes in called transcription and copies the DNA into mRNA so it can be reached outside of the cell.

Transcriptase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of DNA from an RNA template in reverse transcription.

3. A strand of DNA serves as a template (model) for the synthesis of RNA molecules.

DNA is a self-replicating material that's present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information. The shape of DNA is a double helix, the sides are made of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. The sugar is deoxyribose. The rungs of the ladder are pairs of 4 types of nitrogen bases. A base pair is two chemical bases bonded to one another forming a the rungs DNA ladder. The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around each other like a twisted ladder. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a subtype of RNA. An mRNA molecule carries a portion of the DNA code to other parts of the cell for processing. mRNA is created during transcription. During the transcription process, a single strand of DNA is decoded by RNA

RNA interference takes advantage of an intermediate step between DNA and protein. DNA acts as a blueprint for the final protein by using messenger RNA (mRNA) . The mRNA is a messenger molecule between DNA and protein synthesis. There is a two steps process need to be completed in order to go from gene to protein. The first step in protein synthesis is transcription, it takes place in a cell’s nucleus, where the DNA template is used to make a single strand of mRNA. Then, the messenger RNA exits the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm. Now it serves as the template for making the protein. After that, with the help of several different molecules, a string of amino acids forms due to the order of the mRNA bases. This process is called translation

RNA self-replicates by the ribozymes, which provide catalytic reactions on their own nucleotides. Ribozymes can speed up a reaction and the short RNA sequences are eventually connected due to the ribozyme speeding up the reaction. The short sequences of RNA go with the ribozyme. The ribozyme speeds up the entire polymerization of the sequences. The short sequences become one long strand of RNA. The nucleic acid replication evolved by the ribozymes putting together the short sequences of RNA making a large molecule.

Both RNA and DNA utilize a sugar-phosphate backbone. For RNA, the sugar is ribose and contains a hydroxyl group at the 2’ position. For DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose and does not have the hydroxyl at the 2’ position.

Leah Romero 04/25/2018 Lab Report Chem. 102L In lab 12, DNA Replication, RNA Transcription, and Protein Synthesis, the main purpose was to be able to understand the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules as the way DNA replication is created. There were several different models done to understand transcription, translation, and protein synthesis.

With that being said, this mRNA sequence codes for six codons and six amino acids. After the creation of mRNA, proteins need to be made in order to make hameglobin, through translation. The mRNA strand exits the nucleus and attaches onto a ribosominal sub-unit, within the cytoplasm. Every three letters, which code for one amino acid is read, as the mRNA strand flows through the ribomsomes. Once the mRNA is positioned properly in the ribosomal sub uint, it triggers the approach for tRNA. Each tRNA (anti codon) brings one amino acid and complentary binds it with the mRNA codon. The tRNA will then drop off its amio acids, which will be attached onto the growing polypeptide chain. Once the polypeptide chain has gained all the needed amino acids for new protein, it will break of the ribosome and make its way to the endoplasmic reticulum. Later on these amino acids will combine and create a hemoglobin protein (McKinley, O'Loughlin & Bidle,

Transcription is where DNA is transcribed into RNA which then can be pass to the ribosome’s to act as a template for protein synthesis. Before transcription can begin DNA must unwind and the two halves of the molecule much come apart so exposing the base sequence. This process begins when a region of a two DNA strands is unzipped by enzyme called RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA molecule at the imitation site.

DNA polymerases are vital in how an organism can sustain life. DNA polymerases are enzymes that synthesize DNA molecules from deoxyribonucleotides and are accountable for DNA replication. They are absolutely critical for DNA replication and will typically work in sets so that they can create two identical sets of DNA strands from one single strand of DNA. DNA polymerase will catalyze the reaction: deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn diphosphate + DNAn+1. DNA polymerases are extremely important because each time a cell divides, DNA polymerases have to be involved in order to assist in duplicating the cell’s DNA. Duplication of a cell’s DNA allows for the daughter cell to get a copy of the genetic information so that it can carry to multiple generations after. Helicase unwinds DNA so that it separates the two strands making them each single stranded, which will be used as “templates for replication” (Mandal, 2014). DNA polymerase becomes important as now it can add nucleotides to the 3’ end so that the 5’ to 3’ will be extended. DNA polymerase is a very precise and accurate process although, a mistake of one in a billion base pairs copied can be made. DNA polymerase proofreads the DNA so that the base pairs can be corrected if need be. As a visual, “DNA polymerases are shaped like a hand with fingers, palm and thumb subdomains” (Benoît).

It is often referred to as heredity material for its role in storing and transfering genetic material. The other form of nucleic acid is ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA copies sections of the long molecules of DNA inside the nucleus, moving out to the rest of the cell to use the structure to direct the synthesis of proteins. The nucleotide sequence of the mRNA is translated into an amino acid sequence of a protein. in the polypeptide

The second stage of the process is complementary base pairing. In this stage, new complementary nucleotides are positioned following the rules of complementary base pairing: adenine (A) to thymine (T) and guanine (G) to cytosine (C). Then, the binding of free nucleotide with complementary bases is catalyzed by DNA polymerase.

DNA and RNA form the basic unit of the living system. They are termed as the genome. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic genome undergoes two primary processes, transcription and translation. In transcription process, the protein nucleotides called exons gets converted into mRNA whereas, in the translation process, mRNA translated to proteins. In the human genome, 90% of the gene is junk DNA. Whole genome sequencing has revealed new aspects of gene expression, their role in living. Recent researchers have shown that there are some nonprotein coding RNAs are there which affects transcription, translation, post-translational modification and also affects the stability of the genome. Ther are two types of non-coding RNAs: one is regulatory